by Pharmapproach | November 22, 2023 in Clinical Pharmacy 2
Medical abbreviations and acronyms represent “acceptable” terms used by physicians and other health care professionals commonly as a reference to rapidly search and accurately record information about, and give instructions to their patients. They are commonly used due to the tremendous gains in efficiency and the ability to cover numerous medically related concepts with minimal space.
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In order to avoid ambiguity which may likely to lead to an error, it is best to understand the context in which the abbreviation is used as there is no standard or approved list used by health care professionals to search for medical acronyms or abbreviations. Also, individual medical facilities may provide their own list of acceptable terms and abbreviations that may not be used elsewhere.
See Also
What Do the Abbreviations on Your Prescription Mean?Medical Abbreviations | Taber's Medical DictionaryC With a Line Over It: What Does It Mean?List of Common Medical Abbreviations, Acronyms, Terms: Nursing, NCLEX, USMLE — EZmedThis article, therefore, contains a comprehensive list of common medical abbreviations and their meaning. These are by no means exhaustive.
Contents
- 1 A – Medical abbreviations
- 2 B – Medical abbreviations
- 3 C – Medical abbreviations
- 4 D – Medical abbreviations
- 5 E – Medical abbreviations
- 6 F – Medical abbreviations
- 7 G – Medical abbreviations
- 8 H – Medical abbreviations
- 9 I – Medical abbreviations
- 10 J – Medical abbreviations
- 11 K – Medical abbreviations
- 12 L – Medical abbreviations
- 13 M – Medical abbreviations
- 14 N – Medical abbreviations
- 15 O – Medical abbreviations
- 16 P – Medical abbreviations
- 17 Q – Medical abbreviations
- 18 R – Medical abbreviations
- 19 S – Medical abbreviations
- 20 T – Medical abbreviations
- 21 U – Medical abbreviations
- 22 V – Medical abbreviations
- 23 W – Medical abbreviations
- 24 X – Medical abbreviations
- 25 Y – Medical abbreviations
- 26 Z – Medical abbreviations
- 27 References
A – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| A & E | Accident and Emergency |
| A & P | Auscultation and percussion |
| A & W | Alive and well |
| AAROM | Active assistive range of motion |
| Ab | Antibody |
| AB/ab | Abortion |
| ABC | Aspiration, biopsy, cytology |
| abd | Abdomen |
| ABG | Arterial blood gas |
| ACTH | Adrenocorticotrophic hormone |
| AD | Alzheimer’s disease |
| ADD | Attention-deficit disorder |
| ADH | Antidiuretic hormone |
| ADHD | Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder |
| ADL | Activities of daily living |
| AI | Accidental injury |
| AID | Artificial insemination donor |
| AIDS | Acquired immune deficiency syndrome |
| AJ | Ankle jerk |
| AKA | Above the knee amputation |
| ALS | Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis |
| AMA | Against medical advice |
| AMI | Acute myocardial infarction |
| AN | Anorexia nervosa/antenatal |
| ANA | Antinuclear antibodies |
| ANS | Autonomic nervous system |
| APH | Antepartum haemorrhage |
| APM | Anterior poliomyelitis |
| ARF | Acute renal failure |
| ARM | Artificial rupture of membranes |
| AS | Left ear |
| AST | Aspartate transaminase formerly called SGOT |
| AU | Both ears |
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B – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| Ba E | Barium enema |
| Ba M | Barium meal |
| BBT | Basal body temperature |
| BCC | Basal cell carcinoma |
| BCG | Bacille-Calmette-Guerin (vaccine for TB) |
| BI | bony injury/bodily injury |
| BID | Brought in dead |
| BM | Bowel movement |
| BMI | Body mass index |
| BMR | Basal metabolic rate |
| BNO | Bladder neck obstruction |
| BO | Bowels open/body odour |
| BOA | Born on arrival |
| BP, B/P | Blood pressure |
| BPH | Benign prostatic hyperplasia |
| bpm | Beats per minute |
| BRP | Bathroom privileges |
| BS | Bowel sounds |
| BSE | Breast self-examination |
| BSR | Basal sedimentation rate |
| BUN | Blood urea nitrogen |
| BW | Birth weight |
| Bx/ bx | Biopsy |
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C – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| C & S, C+S | Culture and sensitivity (testing) |
| C | Celsius/centigrade; carbon |
| C/O, c/o | Complaints of |
| Ca | Calcium; cancer |
| CABG | Coronary artery bypass graft |
| CAD | Coronary artery disease |
| CAO | Chronic airways obstruction |
| cath | Catheter |
| CBC | Complete blood count |
| CBD | Common bile duct |
| CC | Cardiac catheterization, chief complaint, clean catch urine specimen |
| CD | Controlled drugs/cadaver donor |
| CDH | Congenital dislocation of the hip |
| CF | Cardiac failure |
| CHD | Congenital heart disease; coronary heart disease |
| CHF | Congestive heart failure |
| CIS | Carcinoma in situ |
| CNS | Central nervous system |
| CO2 | Carbon dixoxide |
| COPD | Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
| CP | Cerebral palsy; cleft palate |
| CPR | Cardiopulmonary resuscitation |
| CS, C-section | Cesarean section |
| CSD | Congenital septal defect |
| CSF | Cerebrospinal fluid |
| CT | Calcitonin, computerized tomography |
| CT scan | Computed tomography scan |
| CTA | Clear to auscultation |
| CTS | Carpal tunnel syndrome |
| CV | Cardiovascular; closing volume |
| CVA | Cerebrovasular accident; costovertebral angle |
| CVD | Cerebrovascular disease |
| CVS | Chorionic villus sampling |
| Cx | Cervix |
| CXR | Chest x-ray |
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D – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| D & C | Dilatation and curettage (uterine) |
| D & V | Diarrhoea and vomiting |
| d/c, DISC | Discontinue |
| D5W | Dextrose 5% in water |
| DAT | Differential agglutination test |
| DC, disc | discontinue |
| DI | Diabetes insipidus; diagnostic imaging |
| DIC | Disseminated intravascular coagulation |
| DJD | Degenerative joint disease |
| DKA | Diabetes ketoacidosis |
| DLE | Disseminated lupus erythematous |
| DM | Diabetes mellitus; diastolic murmur |
| DNA | Did not attend; deoxyribonucleic acid |
| DNR | Do not resuscitate |
| DOA | Dead on arrival |
| DOB | Date of birth |
| DOE | Dyspnea on exertion |
| DPT, DTP | Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus injection |
| DRE | Digital rectal exam |
| DS | Disseminated sclerosis |
| DSA | Digital subtraction angiogram |
| DT | Delirium tremens |
| DTR | Deep tendon reflex |
| DU | Duodenal ulcer; diagnosis undetermined |
| DVT | Deep vein thrombosis |
| Dx | Diagnosis |
| DXRT | Deep X-ray therapy |
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E – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| ECG | Electrocardiography |
| ECHO | Echocardiogram |
| ECT | Electroconvulsive therapy |
| EDC | Expected date of confinement |
| EDD | Expected date of delivery |
| EEG | Electroencephalography |
| EENT | Eyes, ears, nose, throat |
| ELISA | Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
| EMG | Electromyogram |
| ENT | Ear, nose and throat |
| EOM | Extraocular movement |
| ER | Emergency room; estrogen receptor |
| ERCP | Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography |
| ESN | Educationally subnormal |
| ESR, SR, sed rate | Erythrocyte sedimentation rate |
| ESRD | End-stage renal disease |
| ETOH | Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) |
| ETT | Exercise tolerance test; endotracheal tube |
| EUA | Examination under anaesthetic |
| EUS | External urethral sphincter |
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F – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| F | Fahrenheit; failure |
| F/U, f/u | Follow-up |
| FB | Foreign body |
| FBC | Full blood count |
| FBS | Fasting blood sugar |
| FDG-PET | Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (nuclear medicine test) |
| FDIU | Fetal death in utero |
| Fe | Iron |
| FEV | Forced expiratory volume |
| FH | Family history |
| FHH | Fetal heart heard |
| FHNH | Fetal heart not heard |
| FHR | Fetal heart rate |
| FHT | Fetal heart tone |
| Fl, fld | Fluid |
| FSH | Follicle stimulating hormone |
| FUO | Fever of unknown (undetermined) origin |
| Fx, FX | Fracture |
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G – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| GA | General anaesthetia; gallium |
| GB | Gallbladder X-ray |
| GC | Gonorrhea |
| GCFT | Gonorrhea complement fixation test |
| GERD | Gastroesophageal reflux disease |
| GFR | Glomerular filtration rate |
| GG/gamma gl | Gamma globulin |
| GH | Growth hormone |
| GHRH | Growth hormone release hormone |
| GI | Gastrointestinal |
| GOK | God only knows! |
| Grav. 1, 2, 3 | Gravida – a woman who has had a first, second, or third pregnancy of any duration |
| GTT | Glucose tolerance test |
| GU | Gastric ulcer/genito-urinary |
| GYN/ gyn | Gynecology |
H – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| H & L | Heart and lungs |
| H & P | History and physical (examination) |
| h/o | History of |
| HA | Headache |
| HAART | Highly active antiretroviral therapy |
| Hb, hgb, Hgb | Haemoglobin |
| HbA1c | Glycosylated hemoglobin (measured to test for diabetes) |
| HbF | Fetal haemoglobin |
| HCG, hCG | Human chorionic gonadotrophin |
| HEENT | Head, ear, eye, nose, throat |
| HGG | Human gamma globulin |
| Hib | Haemophilus influenza type B |
| HIg | Human immunoglobulin |
| HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus |
| HPV | Human papillomavirus |
| HR | Heart rate |
| HRT | Hormone replacement therapy |
| HSV-1, HSV-2 | Herpes simplex virus type 1, type 2 |
| HTN | Hypertension |
| HV | Hallux valgus |
| HVS | High vagin*l swab |
| Hx | History |
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I – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| I & D | Incision and drainage |
| IBS | Irritable bowel syndrome |
| ICP | Intracranial pressure |
| ICU | Intensive care unit |
| IDDM | Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus |
| IDK | Internal derangement of the knee joint |
| Ig | Immunoglobulin |
| IHD | Ischaemic heart disease |
| IM | Intramuscular |
| INR | International normalized ratio (system for reporting results of blood coagulation tests) |
| IOFP | Intraocular foreign body |
| IOL | Intraocular lens (implant) |
| IOP | Intra-ocular pressure |
| IQ | Intelligence quotient |
| IRV | Inspiratory reserve volume |
| IUD | Intrauterine device |
| IV | Intravenous |
| IVF | in vitro fertilization |
| IVP | Intravenous push |
J – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| JRA | Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis |
| JV | Jugular vein |
| JVP | Jugular vein pulse/jugular venous pressure |
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K – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| KJ | Knee jerk |
| KUB | Kidneys, ureters and bladder |
| KVO | Keep vein open |
L – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| LA | Local anesthesia |
| LASER | Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation |
| LB | Loose body |
| LBW | Low birth weight |
| LE | Lupus erythematosus; local excision |
| LFD | Large for dates (fetus) |
| LFT | Liver function tests |
| LG | Lymph gland |
| LH | Luteinizing hormone |
| LIF | Left iliac fossa |
| LIH | Left inguinal hernia |
| LLL | Left lower lobe |
| LLQ | Left lower quadrant |
| LMP | Last menstrual period |
| LOA | Left occipito-anterior |
| LOC | Level; loss of consciousness |
| LOL | Left occipito-lateral |
| LOP | Left occipito-posterior |
| LP | Lumbar puncture |
| LR | Lactated ringer’s |
| LRD | Living related donor |
| LRTI | Lower respiratory tract infection |
| LSCS | Lower segment caesarian section |
| LUE | Left upper extremity |
| LUL | Left upper lobe |
| LUQ | Left upper quadrant |
| LVF | Left ventricular failure |
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M – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| MAC | Monitored anesthesia care |
| MAO | Maximum acid output (gastric); monoamine oxidase |
| MAOI | Monoamine oxidase inhibitor |
| MCH | Mean corpuscular haemoglobin |
| MCHC | Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration |
| MCV | Mean corpuscular volume |
| MH | Marital history; mental health |
| MI | Myocardial infarction; mitral incompetence |
| MMR | measles, mumps and rubella (immunizations) |
| MPV | Mean platelet volume |
| MR | Mitral regurgitation |
| MRA | Magnetic resonance angiography |
| MRI | Magnetic resonance imaging |
| MRSA | Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
| MS | Multiple sclerosis; mitral stenosis |
| MSH | Melanocyte-stimulating hormone |
| MSSU, MSU | Midstream specimen of urine |
| MTD | Maximum tolerated dose |
| MTF | Male to female |
| MUA | Manipulation under anesthesia |
| MVD | Mitral valve disease |
| MVP | Mitral valve prolapse |
| Mx | Mastectomy |
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N – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| N & V, N + V, N/V | Nausea and vomiting |
| N/A | Not applicable |
| NAD | No abnormality demonstrated |
| NAI | Non-accidental injury |
| NED | No evidence of disease |
| NFS | No fracture seen/shown |
| NG | New growth; nasogastric (tube) |
| NGU | Non-gonococcal urethritis |
| NHL | Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma |
| NICU | Neonatal intensive care unit |
| NIDDM | Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus |
| NKA | No known allergies |
| NKDA | No known drug allergies |
| NMR | Nuclear magnetic resonance |
| NND | Neonatal death |
| NNMR | Neonatal mortality rate |
| NPO, n.p.o | Nothing by mouth (nil per os) |
| NPU | Not passed urine |
| NSAIDS | Non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs |
| NSR | Normal sinus rhythm |
| NSU | Non-specific urethritis |
| NSV | Non-specific vaginitis |
| NT | Not tender (to touch) |
| NTP | Normal temperature and pressure |
| NYD | Not yet diagnosed |
O – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| O & G | Obstetrics and gynaecology |
| O.D. | Doctor of optometry |
| O2 | Oxygen |
| OA | Osteoarthritis |
| OB | Obstetrics |
| OC | Oral contraceptive |
| OCD | Obsessive-compulsive disorder |
| OD | Right eye |
| OGTT | Oral glucose tolerance test |
| OM | Otitis media |
| OOB | Out of bed |
| OP | Out-patient |
| OPD | Out-patient department |
| OPV | Oral poliomyelitis vaccine |
| OR | Operating room |
| OS | Left eye |
| OSA | Obstructive sleep apnea |
| OT | Occupational therapy |
| OTC | Over-the-counter |
| OU | Both eyes |
P – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| PA | Pernicious anaemia |
| PAC | Premature atrial contraction |
| PBI | Protein bound iodine |
| PBU | Premature baby unit |
| PCI | Percutaneous coronary intervention |
| PCP | Pneumocystis pneumonia |
| PCV | Packed cell volume |
| PE | Physical examination; pulmonary embolus; plasma exchange |
| PEEP | Positive end-expiratory pressure |
| PEFR | Peak expiratory flow rate |
| PFT | Pulmonary function test |
| PG, pg | Prostaglandins; pregnant |
| PI | Present illness |
| PID | Prolapsed intervertebral disc; pelvic inflammatory disease |
| PIFR | Peak inspiratory flow rate |
| PKU | Phenylketonuria |
| PM | Afternoon (post meridiem); postmortem; pacemaker |
| PMA | Progressive muscular atrophy |
| PMB | Post-menopausal bleeding |
| PMH | Past medical history; post-menopausal haemorrhage |
| PMS | Premenstrual syndrome |
| PMT | Pre-menstrual tension |
| PND | Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea; postnasal drip |
| PNM | Perinatal mortality |
| PO, p.o. | Per os (by mouth) |
| POP | Plaster of paris |
| PPH | Post-partum haemorrhage |
| PR/pr | Per rectum |
| PROM | Premature rupture of membranes |
| PSA | Prostate-specific antigen |
| PTCA | Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty |
| PTH | Parathyroid hormone |
| PTR | Patient to return |
| PTSD | Posttraumatic stress disorder |
| PTT | Partial thromboplastin time |
| PU | Peptic ulcer; passed urine |
| PUD | Peptic ulcer disease |
| PUO | Pyrexia of unknown origin |
| PVC | Premature ventricular contraction |
| PVD | Peripheral vascular disease |
| PVT | Paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia |
| PWB | Partial weight bearing |
| Px | Prognosis |
Q – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| q | Every (quaque) |
| q.d. | Each (every) day (quaque die); better to write out “each day,” because can be misread as q.i.d. |
| q.h. | each (every) hour (quaque hora) |
| q2h | each (every) two hours (quaque secunda hora) |
| q.i.d. | four times a day (quater in die) |
| q.n. | each (every) night (quaque nox) |
| q.n.s. | quantity not sufficient (quantum non sufficit) |
| q.s. | quantity sufficient (quantum sufficit) |
R – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| R/O | Rule out |
| R/T | Related to |
| RA | Rheumatoid arthritis |
| RAO | Right anterior oblique |
| RB | Recurrent bleed |
| RBC, rbc | Red blood cells |
| RDS | Respiratory distress syndrome |
| RDS | Respiratory distress syndrome |
| RE | Rectal examination |
| Rh | Rhesus factor |
| RIF | Right iliac fossa |
| RIH | Right inguinal hernia |
| RL | Shunt right-left shunt |
| RLE | Right lower extremity |
| RLL | Right lower lobe |
| RLQ | Right lower quadrant |
| RML | Right middle lobe of lung |
| RNA | Ribonucleic acid |
| ROA | Right occipito-anterior |
| ROM | Range of movements; range of motion; rupture of membranes |
| ROP | Right occipito-posterior |
| ROS | Review of systems |
| ROT | Right occipito-transverse |
| RP | Retrograde pyelography (urography) |
| RPR | Rapid plasma reagin |
| RR | Recovery room; respiratory rate |
| RRR | Regular rate and rhythm (of the heart) |
| RS | Respiratory system |
| RT | Radiation therapy; reading test; respiratory therapy |
| RTA | Road traffic accident |
| RU | Rodent ulcer |
| RUE | Right upper extremity |
| RUL | Right upper lobe |
| RUQ | Right upper quadrant |
| RV | Residual volume |
| Rx | Treatment; therapy; prescription (recipe, “to take”) |
S – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| s/s | Signs & symptoms |
| S1, S2, S3, S4 | 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th heart sounds |
| SAB | Systolic arterial blood pressure |
| SAD | Seasonal affective disorder |
| SARS | Severe acute respiratory syndrome |
| SB | Stillbirth; stanford-binet (intelligence) tests |
| SCAN | Suspected child abuse or neglect |
| SCBU | Special care baby unit |
| SCC | Squamous cell carcinoma |
| SCI | Spinal cord injury |
| SCIDS | Severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome |
| SDAT | Senile dementia alzheimer’s type |
| SERM | Selective estrogen receptor modulator (tamoxifen is an example) |
| SIDS | Sudden infant death syndrome |
| sig. | “Let it be labeled” (directions or medical instructions) |
| SIRS | Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (severe bacteremia) |
| SLE | Systemic lupus erythematosus |
| SMR | Submucous resection of nasal septum |
| SOAP | Subjective (symptoms perceived by the patient) data, objective (exam findings) data, assessment (evaluation of condition), plan (goals for treatment) |
| SOB | Shortness of breath |
| SOL | Space occupying lesion |
| SPAM | Scanning photo-acoustic microscopy |
| STD | Sexually transmitted disease |
| STI | Sexually transmitted infection |
| STOP | Suction termination of pregnancy |
| STYCAR | Sheridan tests for young children and retards |
| Sub Q | Subcutaneous injection |
| SUD | Sudden unexpected death |
| Sx | Symptoms |
| Sym | Symmetrical |
| Sz | Seizure |
T – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| T & A | Tonsils and adenoids |
| T1, T2, etc. | First thoracic vertebra, second thoracic vertebra, etc. |
| T3 | Triiodothyronine |
| T4 | Thyroxine |
| TAB | Typhoid a and b (vaccines) |
| TAH | Total abdominal hysterectomy |
| TAH-BSO | Total abdominal hysterectomy-bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy |
| TB | Tubercle bacillus |
| TCA | Tricyclic antidepressant/to come again |
| TCI | To come in |
| TFT | Thyroid function tests |
| THA | Total hip arthroplasty |
| THR | Total hip replacement |
| TJR | Total joint replacement |
| TKA | Total knee arthroplasty |
| TKR | Total knee replacement |
| TL | Tubal ligation |
| TLC | Tender loving care; total lung capacity |
| TLE | Temporal lobe epilepsy |
| TMJ | Temporomandibular joint |
| TNM | Tumor, nodes, metastases |
| TOP | Termination of pregnancy |
| TPHA | Treponema pallidum haemoglutination |
| TPN | Total parenteral nutrition |
| TPR | Temperature, pulse and respiration |
| TSH | Thyroid-stimulating hormone |
| TSS | Toxic shock syndrome |
| TSSU | Theatre sterile supply unit |
| TSSU | Transurethral resection (of prostate) |
| TUR | Transplant |
| TX | Treatment |
| Tx | Total parenteral nutrition |
U – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| U/A, UA | Urinalysis |
| U/O | Urine output |
| UC | Ulcerative colitis; urine culture, uterine contractions |
| UE | Upper extremity |
| UG | Urogenital |
| UGI | Upper gastrointestinal |
| URI | Upper respiratory infection |
| URTI | Upper respiratory tract infection |
| US | Ultrasound |
| UTI | Urinary tract infection |
| UV | Ultraviolet |
| UVR | Ultraviolet rays |
V – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| V.S.; v.s. | Vital signs |
| VA | Visual acuity |
| VATS | Video-assisted thoracoscopy |
| VC | Vital capacity (of lungs) |
| VCUG | Voiding cystourethrography |
| VD | Venereal disease |
| VDRL | Venereal disease reference laboratory |
| VE | vagin*l examination |
| VEGF | Vascular endothelial growth factor |
| VF | Visual field; ventricular fibrillation |
| Vfib | Ventricular fibrillation |
| VO | Verbal order |
| VSD | Ventricular septal defect |
| VSS | Vital signs stable |
| VT | Ventricular tachycardia |
| VV | Varicose veins |
| Vx | Vertex (of fetus) |
W – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| WBC | White blood cells |
| WR | Wassermann reaction |
| WDWN | Well-developed and well-nourished |
| WNL | Within normal limits |
X – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| XR | X-ray |
| XRT | Radiation therapy |
Y – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| y, yr | Year |
| y/o | Years old |
Z – Medical abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| Z; oz | Ounce |
References
- Chabner, D. (2018). Medical Terminology: A Short Course (8th ed.). Canada: Elsevier, Inc.
- Fremgen, B. and Frucht, S. (2016). Medical Terminology: A Living Language (6th ed.). United States: Pearson Education, Inc.
- Nath, J. and Lindsley, K. (2019). A Short Course in Medical Terminology (4th ed.). China: Wolters Kluwer.
- Robbins, M. and Wetherfield, J. (1994). Terminology for Medical Administrators. New York: Radcliffe Medical Press Inc.
- Steiner, S. and Capps, N. (2003). Quick Medical Terminology: A Self-Teaching Guide (5th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
